diff --git a/.changeset/mighty-islands-drum.md b/.changeset/mighty-islands-drum.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..9c36c867a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.changeset/mighty-islands-drum.md
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+---
+"@evolu/common-react": patch
+"@evolu/react-native": patch
+"@evolu/common-web": patch
+"@evolu/common": patch
+"@evolu/server": patch
+"@evolu/react": patch
+---
+
+Ensure valid device clock and Timestamp time.
+
+Millis represents a time that is valid for usage with the Merkle tree. It must be between Apr 13, 1997, and Nov 05, 2051, to ensure MinutesBase3 length equals 16. We can find diff for two Merkle trees only within this range. If the device clock is out of range, Evolu will not store data until it's fixed.
diff --git a/packages/evolu-common/src/Crdt.ts b/packages/evolu-common/src/Crdt.ts
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..df893a1e9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/evolu-common/src/Crdt.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,376 @@
+import * as Schema from "@effect/schema/Schema";
+import {
+  Brand,
+  Context,
+  Effect,
+  Either,
+  Layer,
+  Number,
+  Option,
+  ReadonlyArray,
+  String,
+  pipe,
+} from "effect";
+import { Config } from "./Config.js";
+import { NanoId, NodeId } from "./Crypto.js";
+import { murmurhash } from "./Murmurhash.js";
+
+// https://muratbuffalo.blogspot.com/2014/07/hybrid-logical-clocks.html
+// https://jaredforsyth.com/posts/hybrid-logical-clocks/
+// https://github.com/clintharris/crdt-example-app_annotated/blob/master/shared/timestamp.js
+// https://github.com/actualbudget/actual/tree/master/packages/crdt
+
+export interface Timestamp {
+  readonly node: NodeId;
+  readonly millis: Millis;
+  readonly counter: Counter;
+}
+
+export const AllowedTimeRange = {
+  greaterThan: 860934419999,
+  lessThan: 2582803260000,
+};
+
+/**
+ * Millis represents a time that is valid for usage with the Merkle tree.
+ * It must be between Apr 13, 1997, and Nov 05, 2051, to ensure MinutesBase3
+ * length equals 16. We can find diff for two Merkle trees only within this range.
+ * If the device clock is out of range, Evolu will not store data until it's fixed.
+ */
+export const Millis = Schema.number.pipe(
+  Schema.greaterThan(AllowedTimeRange.greaterThan),
+  Schema.lessThan(AllowedTimeRange.lessThan),
+  Schema.brand("Millis"),
+);
+
+export type Millis = Schema.Schema.To<typeof Millis>;
+
+export const initialMillis = Schema.parseSync(Millis)(
+  AllowedTimeRange.greaterThan + 1,
+);
+
+export const Counter = Schema.number.pipe(
+  Schema.between(0, 65535),
+  Schema.brand("Counter"),
+);
+export type Counter = Schema.Schema.To<typeof Counter>;
+
+const initialCounter = Schema.parseSync(Counter)(0);
+
+export type TimestampHash = number & Brand.Brand<"TimestampHash">;
+
+export type TimestampString = string & Brand.Brand<"TimestampString">;
+
+export const timestampToString = (t: Timestamp): TimestampString =>
+  [
+    new Date(t.millis).toISOString(),
+    t.counter.toString(16).toUpperCase().padStart(4, "0"),
+    t.node,
+  ].join("-") as TimestampString;
+
+// TODO: Replace with safe.
+export const unsafeTimestampFromString = (s: TimestampString): Timestamp => {
+  const a = s.split("-");
+  return {
+    millis: Date.parse(a.slice(0, 3).join("-")).valueOf() as Millis,
+    counter: parseInt(a[3], 16) as Counter,
+    node: a[4] as NodeId,
+  };
+};
+
+export const timestampToHash = (t: Timestamp): TimestampHash =>
+  murmurhash(timestampToString(t)) as TimestampHash;
+
+const syncNodeId = Schema.parseSync(NodeId)("0000000000000000");
+
+export const makeSyncTimestamp = (
+  millis: Millis = initialMillis,
+): Timestamp => ({
+  millis,
+  counter: initialCounter,
+  node: syncNodeId,
+});
+
+export const makeInitialTimestamp = NanoId.pipe(
+  Effect.flatMap(({ nanoidAsNodeId }) => nanoidAsNodeId),
+  Effect.map(
+    (node): Timestamp => ({
+      millis: initialMillis,
+      counter: initialCounter,
+      node,
+    }),
+  ),
+);
+
+export interface Time {
+  readonly now: Effect.Effect<never, TimestampTimeOutOfRangeError, Millis>;
+}
+
+export const Time = Context.Tag<Time>("evolu/Time");
+
+export const TimeLive = Layer.succeed(
+  Time,
+  Time.of({
+    now: Effect.suspend(() => Schema.parse(Millis)(Date.now())).pipe(
+      Effect.catchTag("ParseError", () =>
+        Effect.fail<TimestampTimeOutOfRangeError>({
+          _tag: "TimestampTimeOutOfRangeError",
+        }),
+      ),
+    ),
+  }),
+);
+
+export type TimestampError =
+  | TimestampDriftError
+  | TimestampCounterOverflowError
+  | TimestampDuplicateNodeError
+  | TimestampTimeOutOfRangeError;
+
+export interface TimestampDriftError {
+  readonly _tag: "TimestampDriftError";
+  readonly next: Millis;
+  readonly now: Millis;
+}
+
+export interface TimestampCounterOverflowError {
+  readonly _tag: "TimestampCounterOverflowError";
+}
+
+export interface TimestampDuplicateNodeError {
+  readonly _tag: "TimestampDuplicateNodeError";
+  readonly node: NodeId;
+}
+
+export interface TimestampTimeOutOfRangeError {
+  readonly _tag: "TimestampTimeOutOfRangeError";
+}
+
+const getNextMillis = (
+  millis: ReadonlyArray<Millis>,
+): Effect.Effect<
+  Time | Config,
+  TimestampDriftError | TimestampTimeOutOfRangeError,
+  Millis
+> =>
+  Effect.gen(function* (_) {
+    const time = yield* _(Time);
+    const config = yield* _(Config);
+
+    const now = yield* _(time.now);
+    const next = Math.max(now, ...millis) as Millis;
+
+    if (next - now > config.maxDrift)
+      yield* _(
+        Effect.fail<TimestampDriftError>({
+          _tag: "TimestampDriftError",
+          now,
+          next,
+        }),
+      );
+
+    return next;
+  });
+
+const incrementCounter = (
+  counter: Counter,
+): Either.Either<TimestampCounterOverflowError, Counter> =>
+  pipe(
+    Number.increment(counter),
+    Schema.parseEither(Counter),
+    Either.mapLeft(() => ({ _tag: "TimestampCounterOverflowError" })),
+  );
+
+const counterMin = Schema.parseSync(Counter)(0);
+
+export const sendTimestamp = (
+  timestamp: Timestamp,
+): Effect.Effect<
+  Time | Config,
+  | TimestampDriftError
+  | TimestampCounterOverflowError
+  | TimestampTimeOutOfRangeError,
+  Timestamp
+> =>
+  Effect.gen(function* (_) {
+    const millis = yield* _(getNextMillis([timestamp.millis]));
+    const counter =
+      millis === timestamp.millis
+        ? yield* _(incrementCounter(timestamp.counter))
+        : counterMin;
+    return { ...timestamp, millis, counter };
+  });
+
+export const receiveTimestamp = ({
+  local,
+  remote,
+}: {
+  readonly local: Timestamp;
+  readonly remote: Timestamp;
+}): Effect.Effect<
+  Time | Config,
+  | TimestampDriftError
+  | TimestampCounterOverflowError
+  | TimestampDuplicateNodeError
+  | TimestampTimeOutOfRangeError,
+  Timestamp
+> =>
+  Effect.gen(function* (_) {
+    if (local.node === remote.node)
+      yield* _(
+        Effect.fail<TimestampDuplicateNodeError>({
+          _tag: "TimestampDuplicateNodeError",
+          node: local.node,
+        }),
+      );
+
+    const millis = yield* _(getNextMillis([local.millis, remote.millis]));
+    const counter = yield* _(
+      millis === local.millis && millis === remote.millis
+        ? incrementCounter(Math.max(local.counter, remote.counter) as Counter)
+        : millis === local.millis
+        ? incrementCounter(local.counter)
+        : millis === remote.millis
+        ? incrementCounter(remote.counter)
+        : Either.right(counterMin),
+    );
+
+    return { ...local, millis, counter };
+  });
+
+/**
+ * It's actually not Merkle Tree but a Merkleized prefix tree, aka Merkle Trie.
+ * https://decomposition.al/blog/2019/05/31/how-i-learned-about-merklix-trees-without-having-to-become-a-cryptocurrency-enthusiast
+ */
+export interface MerkleTree {
+  readonly hash?: TimestampHash;
+  readonly "0"?: MerkleTree;
+  readonly "1"?: MerkleTree;
+  readonly "2"?: MerkleTree;
+}
+
+export type MerkleTreeString = string & Brand.Brand<"MerkleTreeString">;
+
+export const initialMerkleTree = Object.create(null) as MerkleTree;
+
+type MerkleTreeKey = keyof Omit<MerkleTree, "hash">;
+
+type MerkleTreePath = ReadonlyArray<MerkleTreeKey>;
+
+export const millisToMerkleTreePath = (millis: Millis): MerkleTreePath =>
+  Math.floor(millis / 1000 / 60)
+    .toString(3)
+    .split("") as MerkleTreePath;
+
+const merkleTreePathToMillis = (path: MerkleTreePath): Millis =>
+  path.length === 0
+    ? initialMillis
+    : // 16 is the length of the base 3 value of the current time in minutes.
+      // Ensure it's padded to create the full value.
+      ((parseInt(path.join("").padEnd(16, "0"), 3) * 1000 * 60) as Millis);
+
+const xorTimestampHashes = (
+  a: TimestampHash | undefined,
+  b: TimestampHash,
+): TimestampHash => ((a || 0) ^ b) as TimestampHash;
+
+const insertKey = (
+  tree: MerkleTree,
+  path: MerkleTreePath,
+  hash: TimestampHash,
+): MerkleTree => {
+  if (path.length === 0) return tree;
+  const key = path[0];
+  const child = tree[key] || {};
+  return {
+    ...tree,
+    [key]: {
+      ...child,
+      ...insertKey(child, path.slice(1), hash),
+      hash: xorTimestampHashes(child.hash, hash),
+    },
+  };
+};
+
+export const insertIntoMerkleTree =
+  (timestamp: Timestamp) =>
+  (tree: MerkleTree): MerkleTree => {
+    const path = millisToMerkleTreePath(timestamp.millis);
+    const hash = timestampToHash(timestamp);
+    return insertKey(
+      { ...tree, hash: xorTimestampHashes(tree.hash, hash) },
+      path,
+      hash,
+    );
+  };
+
+const sortedMerkleTreeKeys: ReadonlyArray<MerkleTreeKey> = ["0", "1", "2"];
+
+const getSortedMerkleTreeKeys = (
+  tree: MerkleTree,
+): ReadonlyArray<MerkleTreeKey> =>
+  sortedMerkleTreeKeys.filter((key) => key in tree);
+
+export const diffMerkleTrees = (
+  tree1: MerkleTree,
+  tree2: MerkleTree,
+): Option.Option<Millis> => {
+  if (tree1.hash === tree2.hash) return Option.none();
+  let node1 = tree1;
+  let node2 = tree2;
+  let diffPath: MerkleTreePath = [];
+
+  // This loop will eventually stop when it traverses down to find
+  // where the hashes differ, or otherwise when there are no leaves
+  // left (this shouldn't happen, if that's the case the hash check at
+  // the top of this function should pass)
+  // eslint-disable-next-line no-constant-condition
+  while (1) {
+    const keys = ReadonlyArray.dedupeWith(
+      getSortedMerkleTreeKeys(node1).concat(getSortedMerkleTreeKeys(node2)),
+      String.Equivalence,
+    );
+    let diffKey: MerkleTreeKey | null = null;
+
+    // Traverse down the trie through keys that are different. We
+    // traverse down the keys in order. Stop in two cases: either one
+    // of the nodes doesn't have the key or a different key isn't
+    // found. For the former case, we have to do that because pruning is
+    // lossy. We don't know if we've pruned off a changed key, so we
+    // can't traverse down anymore. For the latter case, it means two
+    // things: either we've hit the bottom of the tree, or the changed
+    // key has been pruned off. In the latter case, we have a "partial"
+    // key and will fill the rest with 0s. If multiple older
+    // messages were added into one trie, we might likely
+    // generate a time that only encompasses *some* of those
+    // messages. Pruning is lossy, and we traverse down the left-most
+    // changed time that we know of, because of pruning, it might take
+    // multiple passes to sync up a trie.
+    for (let i = 0; i < keys.length; i++) {
+      const key = keys[i];
+      const next1 = node1[key];
+      const next2 = node2[key];
+      if (!next1 || !next2) break;
+      if (next1.hash !== next2.hash) {
+        diffKey = key;
+        break;
+      }
+    }
+
+    if (!diffKey) {
+      return Option.some(merkleTreePathToMillis(diffPath));
+    }
+
+    diffPath = [...diffPath, diffKey];
+    node1 = node1[diffKey] || initialMerkleTree;
+    node2 = node2[diffKey] || initialMerkleTree;
+  }
+
+  return Option.none();
+};
+
+export const merkleTreeToString = (m: MerkleTree): MerkleTreeString =>
+  JSON.stringify(m) as MerkleTreeString;
+
+export const unsafeMerkleTreeFromString = (m: MerkleTreeString): MerkleTree =>
+  JSON.parse(m) as MerkleTree;
diff --git a/packages/evolu-common/src/Crypto.ts b/packages/evolu-common/src/Crypto.ts
index e4a4b9e6e..aed32ac2a 100644
--- a/packages/evolu-common/src/Crypto.ts
+++ b/packages/evolu-common/src/Crypto.ts
@@ -63,7 +63,7 @@ export const NanoIdLive = Layer.succeed(
  */
 export const slip21Derive = (
   seed: Uint8Array,
-  path: string[],
+  path: ReadonlyArray<string>,
 ): Effect.Effect<never, never, Uint8Array> =>
   Effect.sync(() => {
     let m = hmac(sha512, "Symmetric key seed", seed);
diff --git a/packages/evolu-common/src/Db.ts b/packages/evolu-common/src/Db.ts
index af2977dc1..dcb13d9cb 100644
--- a/packages/evolu-common/src/Db.ts
+++ b/packages/evolu-common/src/Db.ts
@@ -16,8 +16,13 @@ import {
 } from "effect";
 import * as Kysely from "kysely";
 import { urlAlphabet } from "nanoid";
+import {
+  initialMerkleTree,
+  makeInitialTimestamp,
+  merkleTreeToString,
+  timestampToString,
+} from "./Crdt.js";
 import { Bip39, Mnemonic, NanoId, slip21Derive } from "./Crypto.js";
-import { initialMerkleTree, merkleTreeToString } from "./MerkleTree.js";
 import { Id, SqliteBoolean, SqliteDate } from "./Model.js";
 import {
   createMessageTable,
@@ -33,7 +38,6 @@ import {
   Value,
   queryObjectToQuery,
 } from "./Sqlite.js";
-import { makeInitialTimestamp, timestampToString } from "./Timestamp.js";
 
 export type TableSchema = ReadonlyRecord.ReadonlyRecord<Value> & {
   readonly id: Id;
diff --git a/packages/evolu-common/src/DbWorker.ts b/packages/evolu-common/src/DbWorker.ts
index 6a54efb9d..6c9612017 100644
--- a/packages/evolu-common/src/DbWorker.ts
+++ b/packages/evolu-common/src/DbWorker.ts
@@ -12,6 +12,25 @@ import {
   pipe,
 } from "effect";
 import { Config, ConfigLive } from "./Config.js";
+import {
+  MerkleTree,
+  Time,
+  TimeLive,
+  Timestamp,
+  TimestampCounterOverflowError,
+  TimestampDriftError,
+  TimestampError,
+  TimestampString,
+  TimestampTimeOutOfRangeError,
+  diffMerkleTrees,
+  insertIntoMerkleTree,
+  makeSyncTimestamp,
+  merkleTreeToString,
+  receiveTimestamp,
+  sendTimestamp,
+  timestampToString,
+  unsafeTimestampFromString,
+} from "./Crdt.js";
 import { Bip39, Mnemonic, NanoId } from "./Crypto.js";
 import {
   Owner,
@@ -25,12 +44,6 @@ import {
 } from "./Db.js";
 import { QueryPatches, makePatches } from "./Diff.js";
 import { EvoluError, UnexpectedError, makeUnexpectedError } from "./Errors.js";
-import {
-  MerkleTree,
-  diffMerkleTrees,
-  insertIntoMerkleTree,
-  merkleTreeToString,
-} from "./MerkleTree.js";
 import { Id, SqliteDate, cast } from "./Model.js";
 import {
   insertIntoMessagesIfNew,
@@ -50,20 +63,6 @@ import {
   SyncWorkerOutputSyncResponse,
   SyncWorkerPostMessage,
 } from "./SyncWorker.js";
-import {
-  Time,
-  TimeLive,
-  Timestamp,
-  TimestampCounterOverflowError,
-  TimestampDriftError,
-  TimestampError,
-  TimestampString,
-  makeSyncTimestamp,
-  receiveTimestamp,
-  sendTimestamp,
-  timestampToString,
-  unsafeTimestampFromString,
-} from "./Timestamp.js";
 
 // TODO: Refactor to Effect.
 export interface DbWorker {
@@ -395,7 +394,9 @@ const mutate = ({
   | RowsCacheRef
   | DbWorkerOnMessage
   | SyncWorkerPostMessage,
-  TimestampDriftError | TimestampCounterOverflowError,
+  | TimestampDriftError
+  | TimestampCounterOverflowError
+  | TimestampTimeOutOfRangeError,
   void
 > =>
   Effect.gen(function* (_) {
diff --git a/packages/evolu-common/src/Errors.ts b/packages/evolu-common/src/Errors.ts
index 341569404..3b3ea803b 100644
--- a/packages/evolu-common/src/Errors.ts
+++ b/packages/evolu-common/src/Errors.ts
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 import { Effect } from "effect";
-import { TimestampError } from "./Timestamp.js";
+import { TimestampError } from "./Crdt.js";
 
 export type EvoluError = UnexpectedError | TimestampError;
 
diff --git a/packages/evolu-common/src/Evolu.ts b/packages/evolu-common/src/Evolu.ts
index 494c64e06..c4b83d1c8 100644
--- a/packages/evolu-common/src/Evolu.ts
+++ b/packages/evolu-common/src/Evolu.ts
@@ -12,6 +12,7 @@ import {
 } from "effect";
 import { Simplify } from "kysely";
 import { Config, ConfigLive } from "./Config.js";
+import { Time, TimeLive } from "./Crdt.js";
 import { Bip39, NanoId } from "./Crypto.js";
 import {
   CommonColumns,
@@ -36,7 +37,6 @@ import { AppState, FlushSync } from "./Platform.js";
 import { Query, Row } from "./Sqlite.js";
 import { Store, StoreListener, StoreUnsubscribe, makeStore } from "./Store.js";
 import { SyncState } from "./SyncWorker.js";
-import { Time, TimeLive } from "./Timestamp.js";
 
 export interface Evolu<S extends Schema> {
   readonly subscribeError: ErrorStore["subscribe"];
diff --git a/packages/evolu-common/src/MerkleTree.ts b/packages/evolu-common/src/MerkleTree.ts
deleted file mode 100644
index 487bc39cd..000000000
--- a/packages/evolu-common/src/MerkleTree.ts
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,94 +0,0 @@
-import { Brand, Option } from "effect";
-import {
-  Millis,
-  Timestamp,
-  TimestampHash,
-  timestampToHash,
-} from "./Timestamp.js";
-
-// Technically, it's not Merkle Tree but “merkleized” prefix tree (trie)
-// aka merkle radix trie.
-// https://decomposition.al/blog/2019/05/31/how-i-learned-about-merklix-trees-without-having-to-become-a-cryptocurrency-enthusiast/#fnref:1
-
-export interface MerkleTree {
-  readonly hash?: TimestampHash;
-  readonly "0"?: MerkleTree;
-  readonly "1"?: MerkleTree;
-  readonly "2"?: MerkleTree;
-}
-
-export type MerkleTreeString = string & Brand.Brand<"MerkleTreeString">;
-
-export const initialMerkleTree = Object.create(null) as MerkleTree;
-
-const timestampToKey = (timestamp: Timestamp): string =>
-  Math.floor(timestamp.millis / 1000 / 60).toString(3);
-
-// The internal function [ToInt32] is called on all operands for all bitwise
-// operators. ToInt32(undefined) === 0.
-// https://es5.github.io/#x9.5
-const xorTimestampHashes = (
-  a: TimestampHash | undefined,
-  b: TimestampHash,
-): TimestampHash => ((a || 0) ^ b) as TimestampHash;
-
-const insertKey = (
-  tree: MerkleTree,
-  key: string,
-  hash: TimestampHash,
-): MerkleTree => {
-  if (key.length === 0) return tree;
-  const childKey = key[0] as "0" | "1" | "2";
-  const child = tree[childKey] || {};
-  return {
-    ...tree,
-    [childKey]: {
-      ...child,
-      ...insertKey(child, key.slice(1), hash),
-      hash: xorTimestampHashes(child.hash, hash),
-    },
-  };
-};
-
-export const insertIntoMerkleTree =
-  (timestamp: Timestamp) =>
-  (tree: MerkleTree): MerkleTree => {
-    const key = timestampToKey(timestamp);
-    const hash = timestampToHash(timestamp);
-    return insertKey(
-      { ...tree, hash: xorTimestampHashes(tree.hash, hash) },
-      key,
-      hash,
-    );
-  };
-
-const keyToTimestamp = (key: string): Millis =>
-  (parseInt(key.length > 0 ? key : "0", 3) * 1000 * 60) as Millis;
-
-export const diffMerkleTrees = (
-  tree1: MerkleTree,
-  tree2: MerkleTree,
-): Option.Option<Millis> => {
-  if (tree1.hash === tree2.hash) return Option.none();
-  for1: for (let node1 = tree1, node2 = tree2, key = ""; ; ) {
-    for (const k of ["0", "1", "2"] as const) {
-      const next1 = node1[k];
-      const next2 = node2[k];
-      if (!next1 && !next2) continue;
-      if (!next1 || !next2) break;
-      if (next1.hash !== next2.hash) {
-        key += k;
-        node1 = next1;
-        node2 = next2;
-        continue for1;
-      }
-    }
-    return Option.some(keyToTimestamp(key));
-  }
-};
-
-export const merkleTreeToString = (m: MerkleTree): MerkleTreeString =>
-  JSON.stringify(m) as MerkleTreeString;
-
-export const unsafeMerkleTreeFromString = (m: MerkleTreeString): MerkleTree =>
-  JSON.parse(m) as MerkleTree;
diff --git a/packages/evolu-common/src/Protobuf.ts b/packages/evolu-common/src/Protobuf.ts
index 6c8e31b63..90c85bc4c 100644
--- a/packages/evolu-common/src/Protobuf.ts
+++ b/packages/evolu-common/src/Protobuf.ts
@@ -3,10 +3,9 @@
 // @generated from protobuf file "Protobuf.proto" (syntax proto3)
 // tslint:disable
 import { MessageType } from "@protobuf-ts/runtime";
-import { MerkleTreeString } from "./MerkleTree.js";
-import { OwnerId } from "./Db.js";
+import { MerkleTreeString, TimestampString } from "./Crdt.js";
 import { NodeId } from "./Crypto.js";
-import { TimestampString } from "./Timestamp.js";
+import { OwnerId } from "./Db.js";
 import { Id } from "./Model.js";
 /**
  * @generated from protobuf message SyncRequest
diff --git a/packages/evolu-common/src/SyncWorker.ts b/packages/evolu-common/src/SyncWorker.ts
index 367e98e39..5024923a0 100644
--- a/packages/evolu-common/src/SyncWorker.ts
+++ b/packages/evolu-common/src/SyncWorker.ts
@@ -11,14 +11,17 @@ import {
   absurd,
   identity,
 } from "effect";
-import { SecretBox } from "./Crypto.js";
-import { Owner } from "./Db.js";
-import { UnexpectedError, makeUnexpectedError } from "./Errors.js";
 import {
   MerkleTree,
+  Millis,
+  Timestamp,
+  TimestampString,
   merkleTreeToString,
   unsafeMerkleTreeFromString,
-} from "./MerkleTree.js";
+} from "./Crdt.js";
+import { SecretBox } from "./Crypto.js";
+import { Owner } from "./Db.js";
+import { UnexpectedError, makeUnexpectedError } from "./Errors.js";
 import { Id } from "./Model.js";
 import { Fetch, SyncLock } from "./Platform.js";
 import {
@@ -28,7 +31,6 @@ import {
   SyncResponse,
 } from "./Protobuf.js";
 import { JsonObjectOrArray, Value } from "./Sqlite.js";
-import { Millis, Timestamp, TimestampString } from "./Timestamp.js";
 
 export interface SyncWorker {
   readonly postMessage: (input: SyncWorkerInput) => void;
diff --git a/packages/evolu-common/src/Timestamp.ts b/packages/evolu-common/src/Timestamp.ts
deleted file mode 100644
index 6c4e18f53..000000000
--- a/packages/evolu-common/src/Timestamp.ts
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,192 +0,0 @@
-import * as Schema from "@effect/schema/Schema";
-import { Brand, Context, Effect, Either, Layer, Number, pipe } from "effect";
-import { Config } from "./Config.js";
-import { NanoId, NodeId } from "./Crypto.js";
-import { murmurhash } from "./Murmurhash.js";
-
-// https://muratbuffalo.blogspot.com/2014/07/hybrid-logical-clocks.html
-// https://jaredforsyth.com/posts/hybrid-logical-clocks/
-// https://github.com/clintharris/crdt-example-app_annotated/blob/master/shared/timestamp.js
-export interface Timestamp {
-  readonly node: NodeId;
-  readonly millis: Millis;
-  readonly counter: Counter;
-}
-
-export const Millis = Schema.number.pipe(
-  Schema.greaterThanOrEqualTo(0),
-  Schema.brand("Millis"),
-);
-export type Millis = Schema.Schema.To<typeof Millis>;
-
-const initialMillis = Schema.parseSync(Millis)(0);
-
-export const Counter = Schema.number.pipe(
-  Schema.between(0, 65535),
-  Schema.brand("Counter"),
-);
-export type Counter = Schema.Schema.To<typeof Counter>;
-
-const initialCounter = Schema.parseSync(Counter)(0);
-
-export type TimestampHash = number & Brand.Brand<"TimestampHash">;
-
-export type TimestampString = string & Brand.Brand<"TimestampString">;
-
-export const timestampToString = (t: Timestamp): TimestampString =>
-  [
-    new Date(t.millis).toISOString(),
-    t.counter.toString(16).toUpperCase().padStart(4, "0"),
-    t.node,
-  ].join("-") as TimestampString;
-
-export const unsafeTimestampFromString = (s: TimestampString): Timestamp => {
-  const a = s.split("-");
-  return {
-    millis: Date.parse(a.slice(0, 3).join("-")).valueOf() as Millis,
-    counter: parseInt(a[3], 16) as Counter,
-    node: a[4] as NodeId,
-  };
-};
-
-export const timestampToHash = (t: Timestamp): TimestampHash =>
-  murmurhash(timestampToString(t)) as TimestampHash;
-
-const syncNodeId = Schema.parseSync(NodeId)("0000000000000000");
-
-export const makeSyncTimestamp = (
-  millis: Millis = initialMillis,
-): Timestamp => ({
-  millis,
-  counter: initialCounter,
-  node: syncNodeId,
-});
-
-export const makeInitialTimestamp = NanoId.pipe(
-  Effect.flatMap(({ nanoidAsNodeId }) => nanoidAsNodeId),
-  Effect.map(
-    (node): Timestamp => ({
-      millis: initialMillis,
-      counter: initialCounter,
-      node,
-    }),
-  ),
-);
-
-export interface Time {
-  readonly now: Effect.Effect<never, never, Millis>;
-}
-
-export const Time = Context.Tag<Time>("evolu/Time");
-
-export const TimeLive = Layer.succeed(
-  Time,
-  Time.of({
-    now: Effect.sync(() => Date.now() as Millis),
-  }),
-);
-
-export type TimestampError =
-  | TimestampDriftError
-  | TimestampCounterOverflowError
-  | TimestampDuplicateNodeError;
-
-export interface TimestampDriftError {
-  readonly _tag: "TimestampDriftError";
-  readonly next: Millis;
-  readonly now: Millis;
-}
-
-export interface TimestampCounterOverflowError {
-  readonly _tag: "TimestampCounterOverflowError";
-}
-
-const getNextMillis = (
-  millis: Millis[],
-): Effect.Effect<Time | Config, TimestampDriftError, Millis> =>
-  Effect.gen(function* (_) {
-    const time = yield* _(Time);
-    const config = yield* _(Config);
-
-    const now = yield* _(time.now);
-    const next = Math.max(now, ...millis) as Millis;
-
-    if (next - now > config.maxDrift)
-      yield* _(
-        Effect.fail<TimestampDriftError>({
-          _tag: "TimestampDriftError",
-          now,
-          next,
-        }),
-      );
-
-    return next;
-  });
-
-const incrementCounter = (
-  counter: Counter,
-): Either.Either<TimestampCounterOverflowError, Counter> =>
-  pipe(
-    Number.increment(counter),
-    Schema.parseEither(Counter),
-    Either.mapLeft(() => ({ _tag: "TimestampCounterOverflowError" })),
-  );
-
-const counterMin = Schema.parseSync(Counter)(0);
-
-export const sendTimestamp = (
-  timestamp: Timestamp,
-): Effect.Effect<
-  Time | Config,
-  TimestampDriftError | TimestampCounterOverflowError,
-  Timestamp
-> =>
-  Effect.gen(function* (_) {
-    const millis = yield* _(getNextMillis([timestamp.millis]));
-    const counter =
-      millis === timestamp.millis
-        ? yield* _(incrementCounter(timestamp.counter))
-        : counterMin;
-    return { ...timestamp, millis, counter };
-  });
-
-export interface TimestampDuplicateNodeError {
-  readonly _tag: "TimestampDuplicateNodeError";
-  readonly node: NodeId;
-}
-
-export const receiveTimestamp = ({
-  local,
-  remote,
-}: {
-  readonly local: Timestamp;
-  readonly remote: Timestamp;
-}): Effect.Effect<
-  Time | Config,
-  | TimestampDriftError
-  | TimestampCounterOverflowError
-  | TimestampDuplicateNodeError,
-  Timestamp
-> =>
-  Effect.gen(function* (_) {
-    if (local.node === remote.node)
-      yield* _(
-        Effect.fail<TimestampDuplicateNodeError>({
-          _tag: "TimestampDuplicateNodeError",
-          node: local.node,
-        }),
-      );
-
-    const millis = yield* _(getNextMillis([local.millis, remote.millis]));
-    const counter = yield* _(
-      millis === local.millis && millis === remote.millis
-        ? incrementCounter(Math.max(local.counter, remote.counter) as Counter)
-        : millis === local.millis
-        ? incrementCounter(local.counter)
-        : millis === remote.millis
-        ? incrementCounter(remote.counter)
-        : Either.right(counterMin),
-    );
-
-    return { ...local, millis, counter };
-  });
diff --git a/packages/evolu-common/src/index.ts b/packages/evolu-common/src/index.ts
index e9247d42d..adafa96be 100644
--- a/packages/evolu-common/src/index.ts
+++ b/packages/evolu-common/src/index.ts
@@ -1,12 +1,12 @@
 export { jsonArrayFrom, jsonObjectFrom } from "kysely/helpers/sqlite";
 export * from "./Config.js";
+export * from "./Crdt.js";
 export * from "./Crypto.js";
 export * from "./Db.js";
 export * from "./DbWorker.js";
 export * from "./Diff.js";
 export * from "./Errors.js";
 export * from "./Evolu.js";
-export * from "./MerkleTree.js";
 export * from "./Model.js";
 export * from "./Murmurhash.js";
 export * from "./Platform.js";
@@ -15,4 +15,3 @@ export * from "./Sql.js";
 export * from "./Sqlite.js";
 export * from "./Store.js";
 export * from "./SyncWorker.js";
-export * from "./Timestamp.js";
diff --git a/packages/evolu-common/test/Crdt.test.ts b/packages/evolu-common/test/Crdt.test.ts
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..52f24cd13
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/evolu-common/test/Crdt.test.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,487 @@
+import * as Schema from "@effect/schema/Schema";
+import { Context, Effect, Either, pipe } from "effect";
+import fs from "fs";
+import { describe, expect, test } from "vitest";
+import { Config, ConfigLive } from "../src/Config.js";
+import {
+  AllowedTimeRange,
+  Millis,
+  Time,
+  Timestamp,
+  TimestampCounterOverflowError,
+  TimestampDriftError,
+  TimestampTimeOutOfRangeError,
+  diffMerkleTrees,
+  initialMerkleTree,
+  initialMillis,
+  insertIntoMerkleTree,
+  makeInitialTimestamp,
+  makeSyncTimestamp,
+  millisToMerkleTreePath,
+  receiveTimestamp,
+  sendTimestamp,
+  timestampToHash,
+  timestampToString,
+  unsafeTimestampFromString,
+} from "../src/Crdt.js";
+import { NanoId, NodeId } from "../src/Crypto.js";
+import { makeNode1Timestamp, makeNode2Timestamp } from "./testUtils.js";
+
+test("InitialTimestampLive", () => {
+  const timestamp = makeInitialTimestamp.pipe(
+    Effect.provideService(
+      NanoId,
+      NanoId.of({
+        nanoid: Effect.succeed("nanoid"),
+        nanoidAsNodeId: Effect.succeed("nanoidAsNodeId" as NodeId),
+      }),
+    ),
+    Effect.runSync,
+  );
+  expect(timestamp.counter).toBe(0);
+  expect(timestamp.millis).toBe(860934420000);
+  expect(timestamp.node).toBe("nanoidAsNodeId");
+});
+
+test("createSyncTimestamp", () => {
+  const ts = makeSyncTimestamp();
+  expect(ts.counter).toBe(0);
+  expect(ts.millis).toBe(860934420000);
+  expect(ts.node).toBe("0000000000000000");
+});
+
+test("timestampToString", () => {
+  expect(pipe(makeSyncTimestamp(), timestampToString)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(
+    '"1997-04-13T12:27:00.000Z-0000-0000000000000000"',
+  );
+});
+
+test("timestampFromString", () => {
+  const t = makeSyncTimestamp();
+  expect(t).toEqual(pipe(t, timestampToString, unsafeTimestampFromString));
+});
+
+test("timestampToHash", () => {
+  expect(timestampToHash(makeSyncTimestamp())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(
+    "512511670",
+  );
+});
+
+const config = Config.pipe(Effect.provide(ConfigLive()), Effect.runSync);
+
+const makeMillis = (millis: number): Millis => Schema.parseSync(Millis)(millis);
+
+const context0 = pipe(
+  Context.empty(),
+  Context.add(Config, config),
+  Context.add(Time, { now: Effect.succeed(initialMillis) }),
+);
+
+const context1 = pipe(
+  Context.empty(),
+  Context.add(Config, config),
+  Context.add(Time, { now: Effect.succeed(makeMillis(initialMillis + 1)) }),
+);
+
+describe("sendTimestamp", () => {
+  test("should send monotonically with a monotonic clock", () => {
+    expect(
+      pipe(
+        makeSyncTimestamp(),
+        sendTimestamp,
+        Effect.provide(context1),
+        Effect.runSync,
+      ),
+    ).toMatchSnapshot();
+  });
+
+  test("should send monotonically with a stuttering clock", () => {
+    expect(
+      pipe(
+        makeSyncTimestamp(),
+        sendTimestamp,
+        Effect.provide(context0),
+        Effect.runSync,
+      ),
+    ).toMatchSnapshot();
+  });
+
+  test("should send monotonically with a regressing clock", () => {
+    expect(
+      pipe(
+        makeSyncTimestamp(makeMillis(initialMillis + 1)),
+        sendTimestamp,
+        Effect.provide(context0),
+        Effect.runSync,
+      ),
+    ).toMatchSnapshot();
+  });
+
+  test("should fail with counter overflow", () => {
+    let timestamp: Either.Either<
+      | TimestampDriftError
+      | TimestampCounterOverflowError
+      | TimestampTimeOutOfRangeError,
+      Timestamp
+    > = Either.right(makeSyncTimestamp());
+
+    for (let i = 0; i < 65536; i++) {
+      timestamp = pipe(
+        timestamp,
+        Effect.flatMap(sendTimestamp),
+        Effect.map(Either.right),
+        Effect.catchAll((e) => Effect.succeed(Either.left(e))),
+        Effect.provide(context0),
+        Effect.runSync,
+      );
+    }
+
+    expect(timestamp).toMatchSnapshot();
+  });
+
+  test("should fail with clock drift", () => {
+    expect(
+      pipe(
+        makeSyncTimestamp(makeMillis(initialMillis + config.maxDrift + 1)),
+        sendTimestamp,
+        Effect.catchAll((e) => Effect.succeed(Either.left(e))),
+        Effect.provide(context0),
+        Effect.runSync,
+      ),
+    ).toMatchSnapshot();
+  });
+});
+
+describe("receiveTimestamp", () => {
+  test("wall clock is later than both the local and remote timestamps", () => {
+    expect(
+      pipe(
+        receiveTimestamp({
+          local: makeNode1Timestamp(),
+          remote: makeNode2Timestamp(0, 0),
+        }),
+        Effect.provide(context1),
+        Effect.runSync,
+      ),
+    ).toMatchSnapshot();
+  });
+
+  describe("wall clock is somehow behind", () => {
+    test("for the same timestamps millis, we take the bigger counter", () => {
+      expect(
+        pipe(
+          receiveTimestamp({
+            local: makeNode1Timestamp(1, 0),
+            remote: makeNode2Timestamp(1, 1),
+          }),
+          Effect.provide(context1),
+          Effect.runSync,
+        ),
+      ).toMatchSnapshot();
+
+      expect(
+        pipe(
+          receiveTimestamp({
+            local: makeNode1Timestamp(1, 1),
+            remote: makeNode2Timestamp(1, 0),
+          }),
+          Effect.provide(context0),
+          Effect.runSync,
+        ),
+      ).toMatchSnapshot();
+    });
+
+    test("local millis is later than remote", () => {
+      expect(
+        pipe(
+          receiveTimestamp({
+            local: makeNode1Timestamp(2),
+            remote: makeNode2Timestamp(1),
+          }),
+          Effect.provide(context0),
+          Effect.runSync,
+        ),
+      ).toMatchSnapshot();
+    });
+
+    test("remote millis is later than local", () => {
+      expect(
+        pipe(
+          receiveTimestamp({
+            local: makeNode1Timestamp(1),
+            remote: makeNode2Timestamp(2),
+          }),
+          Effect.provide(context0),
+          Effect.runSync,
+        ),
+      ).toMatchSnapshot();
+    });
+  });
+
+  test("TimestampDuplicateNodeError", () => {
+    expect(
+      pipe(
+        receiveTimestamp({
+          local: makeNode1Timestamp(),
+          remote: makeNode1Timestamp(),
+        }),
+        Effect.catchAll((e) => Effect.succeed(Either.left(e))),
+        Effect.provide(context1),
+        Effect.runSync,
+      ),
+    ).toMatchSnapshot();
+  });
+
+  test("should fail with clock drift", () => {
+    expect(
+      pipe(
+        receiveTimestamp({
+          local: makeSyncTimestamp(
+            makeMillis(initialMillis + config.maxDrift + 1),
+          ),
+          remote: makeNode2Timestamp(),
+        }),
+        Effect.catchAll((e) => Effect.succeed(Either.left(e))),
+        Effect.provide(context0),
+        Effect.runSync,
+      ),
+    ).toMatchSnapshot();
+
+    expect(
+      pipe(
+        receiveTimestamp({
+          local: makeNode2Timestamp(),
+          remote: makeSyncTimestamp(
+            makeMillis(initialMillis + config.maxDrift + 1),
+          ),
+        }),
+        Effect.catchAll((e) => Effect.succeed(Either.left(e))),
+        Effect.provide(context0),
+        Effect.runSync,
+      ),
+    ).toMatchSnapshot();
+  });
+});
+
+const node1TimestampStart = makeNode1Timestamp();
+const node2Timestamp2022 = makeNode2Timestamp(1656873738591);
+
+const someMerkleTree = pipe(
+  initialMerkleTree,
+  insertIntoMerkleTree(node2Timestamp2022),
+);
+
+test("createInitialMerkleTree", () => {
+  expect(initialMerkleTree).toMatchSnapshot();
+});
+
+describe("insertIntoMerkleTree", () => {
+  test("node1TimestampStart", () => {
+    expect(
+      insertIntoMerkleTree(node1TimestampStart)(initialMerkleTree),
+    ).toMatchSnapshot();
+  });
+
+  test("node2Timestamp2022", () => {
+    expect(
+      insertIntoMerkleTree(node2Timestamp2022)(initialMerkleTree),
+    ).toMatchSnapshot();
+  });
+
+  test("node1TimestampStart then node2Timestamp2022", () => {
+    expect(
+      pipe(
+        initialMerkleTree,
+        insertIntoMerkleTree(node1TimestampStart),
+        insertIntoMerkleTree(node2Timestamp2022),
+      ),
+    ).toMatchSnapshot();
+  });
+
+  test("the order does not matter", () => {
+    expect(
+      pipe(
+        initialMerkleTree,
+        insertIntoMerkleTree(node1TimestampStart),
+        insertIntoMerkleTree(node2Timestamp2022),
+      ),
+    ).toEqual(
+      pipe(
+        initialMerkleTree,
+        insertIntoMerkleTree(node2Timestamp2022),
+        insertIntoMerkleTree(node1TimestampStart),
+      ),
+    );
+
+    const merkle0 = fs.readFileSync("./test/fixtures/merkle0.json", "utf8");
+    const merkle1 = fs.readFileSync("./test/fixtures/merkle1.json", "utf8");
+    const merkle2 = fs.readFileSync("./test/fixtures/merkle2.json", "utf8");
+    const merkle3 = fs.readFileSync("./test/fixtures/merkle3.json", "utf8");
+
+    expect(merkle0).toEqual(merkle1);
+    expect(merkle1).toEqual(merkle2);
+    expect(merkle2).toEqual(merkle3);
+  });
+});
+
+describe("diffMerkleTrees", () => {
+  test("diff for two initial Merkle Trees", () => {
+    expect(
+      diffMerkleTrees(initialMerkleTree, initialMerkleTree),
+    ).toMatchSnapshot();
+  });
+
+  test("diff for initialMerkleTree and mt1", () => {
+    expect(
+      diffMerkleTrees(initialMerkleTree, someMerkleTree),
+    ).toMatchSnapshot();
+  });
+
+  test("diff for mt1 and initialMerkleTree", () => {
+    expect(
+      diffMerkleTrees(someMerkleTree, initialMerkleTree),
+    ).toMatchSnapshot();
+  });
+
+  test("minute window", () => {
+    expect(
+      diffMerkleTrees(
+        someMerkleTree,
+        pipe(
+          initialMerkleTree,
+          insertIntoMerkleTree(makeNode2Timestamp(60000 - 1)),
+        ),
+      ),
+    ).toMatchSnapshot();
+
+    expect(
+      diffMerkleTrees(
+        someMerkleTree,
+        pipe(
+          initialMerkleTree,
+          insertIntoMerkleTree(makeNode2Timestamp(60000)),
+        ),
+      ),
+    ).toMatchSnapshot();
+  });
+
+  const twentyYears = 1000 * 60 * 60 * 24 * 365 * 20;
+
+  test("find the most recent time when trees were the same", () => {
+    // May 17 2023 12:09:55
+    const now = 1684318195723 - initialMillis;
+
+    const t1 = pipe(
+      initialMerkleTree,
+      insertIntoMerkleTree(makeNode1Timestamp(now)),
+      insertIntoMerkleTree(makeNode1Timestamp(now + 10000)),
+    );
+    const t2 = pipe(
+      initialMerkleTree,
+      insertIntoMerkleTree(makeNode1Timestamp(now)),
+    );
+    expect(diffMerkleTrees(t1, t2)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "_id": "Option",
+        "_tag": "Some",
+        "value": 1684318140000,
+      }
+    `);
+
+    const t3 = pipe(
+      initialMerkleTree,
+      insertIntoMerkleTree(makeNode1Timestamp(now + twentyYears)),
+      insertIntoMerkleTree(makeNode1Timestamp(now + twentyYears + 10000)),
+    );
+    const t4 = pipe(
+      initialMerkleTree,
+      insertIntoMerkleTree(makeNode1Timestamp(now + twentyYears)),
+    );
+    expect(diffMerkleTrees(t3, t4)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "_id": "Option",
+        "_tag": "Some",
+        "value": 2315038140000,
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  // TODO: Make this test deterministic.
+  test("sync", () => {
+    const startTime = 0;
+    const endTime = twentyYears;
+
+    const getRandomTime = (): number => {
+      const randomTime = Math.random() * (endTime - startTime) + startTime;
+      return new Date(randomTime).getTime();
+    };
+
+    const randomTimes: Array<number> = [];
+    for (let i = 0; i < 1000; i++) {
+      randomTimes.push(getRandomTime());
+    }
+    randomTimes.sort((a, b) => a - b);
+
+    const timestamps = randomTimes.map((time) =>
+      (Math.random() >= 0.5 ? makeNode1Timestamp : makeNode2Timestamp)(time),
+    );
+
+    const db1: Array<Timestamp> = [];
+    let t1 = initialMerkleTree;
+    const addTo1 = (timestamp: Timestamp): void => {
+      if (!db1.some((t) => t.millis === timestamp.millis)) {
+        db1.push(timestamp);
+        t1 = insertIntoMerkleTree(timestamp)(t1);
+      }
+    };
+
+    const db2: Array<Timestamp> = [];
+    let t2 = initialMerkleTree;
+    const addTo2 = (timestamp: Timestamp): void => {
+      if (!db2.some((t) => t.millis === timestamp.millis)) {
+        db2.push(timestamp);
+        t2 = insertIntoMerkleTree(timestamp)(t2);
+      }
+    };
+
+    const getRandomNumber = (min: number, max: number): number => {
+      return Math.random() * (max - min) + min;
+    };
+
+    while (timestamps.length > 0) {
+      timestamps.splice(0, getRandomNumber(0, 10)).forEach((timestamp) => {
+        if (timestamp.node === "0000000000000001") addTo1(timestamp);
+        else addTo2(timestamp);
+      });
+
+      // eslint-disable-next-line no-constant-condition
+      while (1) {
+        const diff = diffMerkleTrees(t1, t2);
+        if (diff._tag === "None") break;
+        [...db1, ...db2]
+          .filter((t) => t.millis >= diff.value)
+          .forEach((timestamp) => {
+            addTo1(timestamp);
+            addTo2(timestamp);
+          });
+      }
+    }
+
+    expect(timestamps.length).toBe(0);
+  });
+});
+
+test("millisToMinutesBase3", () => {
+  expect(
+    millisToMerkleTreePath(AllowedTimeRange.greaterThan as Millis).length,
+  ).toEqual(15);
+  expect(
+    millisToMerkleTreePath((AllowedTimeRange.greaterThan + 1) as Millis).length,
+  ).toEqual(16);
+  expect(
+    millisToMerkleTreePath((AllowedTimeRange.lessThan - 1) as Millis).length,
+  ).toEqual(16);
+  expect(
+    millisToMerkleTreePath(AllowedTimeRange.lessThan as Millis).length,
+  ).toEqual(17);
+});
diff --git a/packages/evolu-common/test/MerkleTree.test.ts b/packages/evolu-common/test/MerkleTree.test.ts
deleted file mode 100644
index 9416c50b8..000000000
--- a/packages/evolu-common/test/MerkleTree.test.ts
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,203 +0,0 @@
-import { pipe } from "effect";
-import fs from "fs";
-import { describe, expect, test } from "vitest";
-import {
-  diffMerkleTrees,
-  initialMerkleTree,
-  insertIntoMerkleTree,
-} from "../src/MerkleTree.js";
-import { Millis, Timestamp } from "../src/Timestamp.js";
-import { makeNode1Timestamp, makeNode2Timestamp } from "./testUtils.js";
-
-const now = 1684318195723;
-const node1TimestampStart = makeNode1Timestamp();
-const node2Timestamp2022 = makeNode2Timestamp(1656873738591);
-
-const someMerkleTree = pipe(
-  initialMerkleTree,
-  insertIntoMerkleTree(node2Timestamp2022),
-);
-
-test("createInitialMerkleTree", () => {
-  expect(initialMerkleTree).toMatchSnapshot();
-});
-
-describe("insertIntoMerkleTree", () => {
-  test("node1TimestampStart", () => {
-    expect(
-      insertIntoMerkleTree(node1TimestampStart)(initialMerkleTree),
-    ).toMatchSnapshot();
-  });
-
-  test("node2Timestamp2022", () => {
-    expect(
-      insertIntoMerkleTree(node2Timestamp2022)(initialMerkleTree),
-    ).toMatchSnapshot();
-  });
-
-  test("node1TimestampStart then node2Timestamp2022", () => {
-    expect(
-      pipe(
-        initialMerkleTree,
-        insertIntoMerkleTree(node1TimestampStart),
-        insertIntoMerkleTree(node2Timestamp2022),
-      ),
-    ).toMatchSnapshot();
-  });
-
-  test("the order does not matter", () => {
-    expect(
-      pipe(
-        initialMerkleTree,
-        insertIntoMerkleTree(node1TimestampStart),
-        insertIntoMerkleTree(node2Timestamp2022),
-      ),
-    ).toEqual(
-      pipe(
-        initialMerkleTree,
-        insertIntoMerkleTree(node2Timestamp2022),
-        insertIntoMerkleTree(node1TimestampStart),
-      ),
-    );
-
-    const merkle0 = fs.readFileSync("./test/fixtures/merkle0.json", "utf8");
-    const merkle1 = fs.readFileSync("./test/fixtures/merkle1.json", "utf8");
-    const merkle2 = fs.readFileSync("./test/fixtures/merkle2.json", "utf8");
-    const merkle3 = fs.readFileSync("./test/fixtures/merkle3.json", "utf8");
-
-    expect(merkle0).toEqual(merkle1);
-    expect(merkle1).toEqual(merkle2);
-    expect(merkle2).toEqual(merkle3);
-  });
-});
-
-describe("diffMerkleTrees", () => {
-  test("diff for two initial Merkle Trees", () => {
-    expect(
-      diffMerkleTrees(initialMerkleTree, initialMerkleTree),
-    ).toMatchSnapshot();
-  });
-
-  test("diff for initialMerkleTree and mt1", () => {
-    expect(
-      diffMerkleTrees(initialMerkleTree, someMerkleTree),
-    ).toMatchSnapshot();
-  });
-
-  test("diff for mt1 and initialMerkleTree", () => {
-    expect(
-      diffMerkleTrees(someMerkleTree, initialMerkleTree),
-    ).toMatchSnapshot();
-  });
-
-  test("minute window", () => {
-    expect(
-      diffMerkleTrees(
-        someMerkleTree,
-        pipe(
-          initialMerkleTree,
-          insertIntoMerkleTree(makeNode2Timestamp(60000 - 1)),
-        ),
-      ),
-    ).toMatchSnapshot();
-
-    expect(
-      diffMerkleTrees(
-        someMerkleTree,
-        pipe(
-          initialMerkleTree,
-          insertIntoMerkleTree(makeNode2Timestamp(60000)),
-        ),
-      ),
-    ).toMatchSnapshot();
-  });
-
-  test("find the most recent time when trees were the same", () => {
-    const t1 = pipe(
-      initialMerkleTree,
-      insertIntoMerkleTree(makeNode1Timestamp(now)),
-      insertIntoMerkleTree(makeNode1Timestamp(now + 10000)),
-    );
-    const t2 = pipe(
-      initialMerkleTree,
-      insertIntoMerkleTree(makeNode1Timestamp(now)),
-    );
-    expect(diffMerkleTrees(t1, t2)).toMatchSnapshot();
-
-    const hundredYears = 1000 * 60 * 60 * 24 * 365 * 100;
-    const t3 = pipe(
-      initialMerkleTree,
-      insertIntoMerkleTree(makeNode1Timestamp(now + hundredYears)),
-      insertIntoMerkleTree(makeNode1Timestamp(now + hundredYears + 10000)),
-    );
-    const t4 = pipe(
-      initialMerkleTree,
-      insertIntoMerkleTree(makeNode1Timestamp(now + hundredYears)),
-    );
-    expect(diffMerkleTrees(t3, t4)).toMatchSnapshot();
-  });
-
-  test("sync", () => {
-    const getRandomTime = (): number => {
-      const startTime = new Date(1971, 0, 0).getTime();
-      const endTime = new Date(2400, 11, 31).getTime();
-      const randomTime = Math.random() * (endTime - startTime) + startTime;
-      return new Date(randomTime).getTime();
-    };
-
-    const randomTimes: Array<number> = [];
-    for (let i = 0; i < 1000; i++) {
-      randomTimes.push(getRandomTime());
-    }
-    randomTimes.sort((a, b) => a - b);
-
-    const timestamps = randomTimes.map((time) =>
-      (Math.random() >= 0.5 ? makeNode1Timestamp : makeNode2Timestamp)(
-        time as Millis,
-      ),
-    );
-
-    const db1: Array<Timestamp> = [];
-    let t1 = initialMerkleTree;
-    const addTo1 = (timestamp: Timestamp): void => {
-      if (!db1.some((t) => t.millis === timestamp.millis)) {
-        db1.push(timestamp);
-        t1 = insertIntoMerkleTree(timestamp)(t1);
-      }
-    };
-
-    const db2: Array<Timestamp> = [];
-    let t2 = initialMerkleTree;
-    const addTo2 = (timestamp: Timestamp): void => {
-      if (!db2.some((t) => t.millis === timestamp.millis)) {
-        db2.push(timestamp);
-        t2 = insertIntoMerkleTree(timestamp)(t2);
-      }
-    };
-
-    const getRandomNumber = (min: number, max: number): number => {
-      return Math.random() * (max - min) + min;
-    };
-
-    while (timestamps.length > 0) {
-      timestamps.splice(0, getRandomNumber(0, 10)).forEach((timestamp) => {
-        if (timestamp.node === "0000000000000001") addTo1(timestamp);
-        else addTo2(timestamp);
-      });
-
-      // eslint-disable-next-line no-constant-condition
-      while (1) {
-        const diff = diffMerkleTrees(t1, t2);
-        if (diff._tag === "None") break;
-        [...db1, ...db2]
-          .filter((t) => t.millis >= diff.value)
-          .forEach((timestamp) => {
-            addTo1(timestamp);
-            addTo2(timestamp);
-          });
-      }
-    }
-
-    expect(timestamps.length).toBe(0);
-  });
-});
diff --git a/packages/evolu-common/test/Timestamp.test.ts b/packages/evolu-common/test/Timestamp.test.ts
deleted file mode 100644
index cf97b8518..000000000
--- a/packages/evolu-common/test/Timestamp.test.ts
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,247 +0,0 @@
-import { Context, Effect, Either, pipe } from "effect";
-import { describe, expect, test } from "vitest";
-import { Config, ConfigLive } from "../src/Config.js";
-import { NanoId, NodeId } from "../src/Crypto.js";
-import {
-  Millis,
-  Time,
-  Timestamp,
-  TimestampCounterOverflowError,
-  TimestampDriftError,
-  makeInitialTimestamp,
-  makeSyncTimestamp,
-  receiveTimestamp,
-  sendTimestamp,
-  timestampToHash,
-  timestampToString,
-  unsafeTimestampFromString,
-} from "../src/Timestamp.js";
-import { makeNode1Timestamp, makeNode2Timestamp } from "./testUtils.js";
-
-test("InitialTimestampLive", () => {
-  const timestamp = makeInitialTimestamp.pipe(
-    Effect.provideService(
-      NanoId,
-      NanoId.of({
-        nanoid: Effect.succeed("nanoid"),
-        nanoidAsNodeId: Effect.succeed("nanoidAsNodeId" as NodeId),
-      }),
-    ),
-    Effect.runSync,
-  );
-  expect(timestamp.counter).toBe(0);
-  expect(timestamp.millis).toBe(0);
-  expect(timestamp.node).toBe("nanoidAsNodeId");
-});
-
-test("createSyncTimestamp", () => {
-  const ts = makeSyncTimestamp();
-  expect(ts.counter).toBe(0);
-  expect(ts.millis).toBe(0);
-  expect(ts.node).toBe("0000000000000000");
-});
-
-test("timestampToString", () => {
-  expect(pipe(makeSyncTimestamp(), timestampToString)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(
-    '"1970-01-01T00:00:00.000Z-0000-0000000000000000"',
-  );
-});
-
-test("timestampFromString", () => {
-  const t = makeSyncTimestamp();
-  expect(t).toEqual(pipe(t, timestampToString, unsafeTimestampFromString));
-});
-
-test("timestampToHash", () => {
-  expect(timestampToHash(makeSyncTimestamp())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(
-    "4179357717",
-  );
-});
-
-const config = Config.pipe(Effect.provide(ConfigLive()), Effect.runSync);
-
-const context0 = pipe(
-  Context.empty(),
-  Context.add(Config, config),
-  Context.add(Time, { now: Effect.succeed(0 as Millis) }),
-);
-
-const context1 = pipe(
-  Context.empty(),
-  Context.add(Config, config),
-  Context.add(Time, { now: Effect.succeed(1 as Millis) }),
-);
-
-describe("sendTimestamp", () => {
-  test("should send monotonically with a monotonic clock", () => {
-    expect(
-      pipe(
-        makeSyncTimestamp(),
-        sendTimestamp,
-        Effect.provide(context1),
-        Effect.runSync,
-      ),
-    ).toMatchSnapshot();
-  });
-
-  test("should send monotonically with a stuttering clock", () => {
-    expect(
-      pipe(
-        makeSyncTimestamp(),
-        sendTimestamp,
-        Effect.provide(context0),
-        Effect.runSync,
-      ),
-    ).toMatchSnapshot();
-  });
-
-  test("should send monotonically with a regressing clock", () => {
-    expect(
-      pipe(
-        makeSyncTimestamp(1 as Millis),
-        sendTimestamp,
-        Effect.provide(context0),
-        Effect.runSync,
-      ),
-    ).toMatchSnapshot();
-  });
-
-  test("should fail with counter overflow", () => {
-    let timestamp: Either.Either<
-      TimestampDriftError | TimestampCounterOverflowError,
-      Timestamp
-    > = Either.right(makeSyncTimestamp());
-
-    for (let i = 0; i < 65536; i++) {
-      timestamp = pipe(
-        timestamp,
-        Effect.flatMap(sendTimestamp),
-        Effect.map(Either.right),
-        Effect.catchAll((e) => Effect.succeed(Either.left(e))),
-        Effect.provide(context0),
-        Effect.runSync,
-      );
-    }
-
-    expect(timestamp).toMatchSnapshot();
-  });
-
-  test("should fail with clock drift", () => {
-    expect(
-      pipe(
-        makeSyncTimestamp((config.maxDrift + 1) as Millis),
-        sendTimestamp,
-        Effect.catchAll((e) => Effect.succeed(Either.left(e))),
-        Effect.provide(context0),
-        Effect.runSync,
-      ),
-    ).toMatchSnapshot();
-  });
-});
-
-describe("receiveTimestamp", () => {
-  test("wall clock is later than both the local and remote timestamps", () => {
-    expect(
-      pipe(
-        receiveTimestamp({
-          local: makeNode1Timestamp(),
-          remote: makeNode2Timestamp(0, 0),
-        }),
-        Effect.provide(context1),
-        Effect.runSync,
-      ),
-    ).toMatchSnapshot();
-  });
-
-  describe("wall clock is somehow behind", () => {
-    test("for the same timestamps millis, we take the bigger counter", () => {
-      expect(
-        pipe(
-          receiveTimestamp({
-            local: makeNode1Timestamp(1, 0),
-            remote: makeNode2Timestamp(1, 1),
-          }),
-          Effect.provide(context1),
-          Effect.runSync,
-        ),
-      ).toMatchSnapshot();
-
-      expect(
-        pipe(
-          receiveTimestamp({
-            local: makeNode1Timestamp(1, 1),
-            remote: makeNode2Timestamp(1, 0),
-          }),
-          Effect.provide(context0),
-          Effect.runSync,
-        ),
-      ).toMatchSnapshot();
-    });
-
-    test("local millis is later than remote", () => {
-      expect(
-        pipe(
-          receiveTimestamp({
-            local: makeNode1Timestamp(2),
-            remote: makeNode2Timestamp(1),
-          }),
-          Effect.provide(context0),
-          Effect.runSync,
-        ),
-      ).toMatchSnapshot();
-    });
-
-    test("remote millis is later than local", () => {
-      expect(
-        pipe(
-          receiveTimestamp({
-            local: makeNode1Timestamp(1),
-            remote: makeNode2Timestamp(2),
-          }),
-          Effect.provide(context0),
-          Effect.runSync,
-        ),
-      ).toMatchSnapshot();
-    });
-  });
-
-  test("TimestampDuplicateNodeError", () => {
-    expect(
-      pipe(
-        receiveTimestamp({
-          local: makeNode1Timestamp(),
-          remote: makeNode1Timestamp(),
-        }),
-        Effect.catchAll((e) => Effect.succeed(Either.left(e))),
-        Effect.provide(context1),
-        Effect.runSync,
-      ),
-    ).toMatchSnapshot();
-  });
-
-  test("should fail with clock drift", () => {
-    expect(
-      pipe(
-        receiveTimestamp({
-          local: makeSyncTimestamp((config.maxDrift + 1) as Millis),
-          remote: makeNode2Timestamp(),
-        }),
-        Effect.catchAll((e) => Effect.succeed(Either.left(e))),
-        Effect.provide(context0),
-        Effect.runSync,
-      ),
-    ).toMatchSnapshot();
-
-    expect(
-      pipe(
-        receiveTimestamp({
-          local: makeNode2Timestamp(),
-          remote: makeSyncTimestamp((config.maxDrift + 1) as Millis),
-        }),
-        Effect.catchAll((e) => Effect.succeed(Either.left(e))),
-        Effect.provide(context0),
-        Effect.runSync,
-      ),
-    ).toMatchSnapshot();
-  });
-});
diff --git a/packages/evolu-common/test/__snapshots__/Crdt.test.ts.snap b/packages/evolu-common/test/__snapshots__/Crdt.test.ts.snap
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..8b93d77a5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/evolu-common/test/__snapshots__/Crdt.test.ts.snap
@@ -0,0 +1,373 @@
+// Vitest Snapshot v1, https://vitest.dev/guide/snapshot.html
+
+exports[`createInitialMerkleTree 1`] = `{}`;
+
+exports[`diffMerkleTrees > diff for initialMerkleTree and mt1 1`] = `
+{
+  "_id": "Option",
+  "_tag": "Some",
+  "value": 860934420000,
+}
+`;
+
+exports[`diffMerkleTrees > diff for mt1 and initialMerkleTree 1`] = `
+{
+  "_id": "Option",
+  "_tag": "Some",
+  "value": 860934420000,
+}
+`;
+
+exports[`diffMerkleTrees > diff for two initial Merkle Trees 1`] = `
+{
+  "_id": "Option",
+  "_tag": "None",
+}
+`;
+
+exports[`diffMerkleTrees > minute window 1`] = `
+{
+  "_id": "Option",
+  "_tag": "Some",
+  "value": 860934420000,
+}
+`;
+
+exports[`diffMerkleTrees > minute window 2`] = `
+{
+  "_id": "Option",
+  "_tag": "Some",
+  "value": 860934420000,
+}
+`;
+
+exports[`insertIntoMerkleTree > node1TimestampStart 1`] = `
+{
+  "1": {
+    "0": {
+      "0": {
+        "0": {
+          "0": {
+            "0": {
+              "0": {
+                "0": {
+                  "0": {
+                    "0": {
+                      "0": {
+                        "0": {
+                          "0": {
+                            "0": {
+                              "0": {
+                                "0": {
+                                  "hash": -1854333397,
+                                },
+                                "hash": -1854333397,
+                              },
+                              "hash": -1854333397,
+                            },
+                            "hash": -1854333397,
+                          },
+                          "hash": -1854333397,
+                        },
+                        "hash": -1854333397,
+                      },
+                      "hash": -1854333397,
+                    },
+                    "hash": -1854333397,
+                  },
+                  "hash": -1854333397,
+                },
+                "hash": -1854333397,
+              },
+              "hash": -1854333397,
+            },
+            "hash": -1854333397,
+          },
+          "hash": -1854333397,
+        },
+        "hash": -1854333397,
+      },
+      "hash": -1854333397,
+    },
+    "hash": -1854333397,
+  },
+  "hash": -1854333397,
+}
+`;
+
+exports[`insertIntoMerkleTree > node1TimestampStart then node2Timestamp2022 1`] = `
+{
+  "1": {
+    "0": {
+      "0": {
+        "0": {
+          "0": {
+            "0": {
+              "0": {
+                "0": {
+                  "0": {
+                    "0": {
+                      "0": {
+                        "0": {
+                          "0": {
+                            "0": {
+                              "0": {
+                                "0": {
+                                  "hash": -1854333397,
+                                },
+                                "hash": -1854333397,
+                              },
+                              "hash": -1854333397,
+                            },
+                            "hash": -1854333397,
+                          },
+                          "hash": -1854333397,
+                        },
+                        "hash": -1854333397,
+                      },
+                      "hash": -1854333397,
+                    },
+                    "hash": -1854333397,
+                  },
+                  "hash": -1854333397,
+                },
+                "hash": -1854333397,
+              },
+              "hash": -1854333397,
+            },
+            "hash": -1854333397,
+          },
+          "hash": -1854333397,
+        },
+        "hash": -1854333397,
+      },
+      "hash": -1854333397,
+    },
+    "hash": -1854333397,
+  },
+  "2": {
+    "2": {
+      "2": {
+        "0": {
+          "2": {
+            "2": {
+              "1": {
+                "2": {
+                  "2": {
+                    "2": {
+                      "0": {
+                        "0": {
+                          "1": {
+                            "1": {
+                              "2": {
+                                "0": {
+                                  "hash": -2002249084,
+                                },
+                                "hash": -2002249084,
+                              },
+                              "hash": -2002249084,
+                            },
+                            "hash": -2002249084,
+                          },
+                          "hash": -2002249084,
+                        },
+                        "hash": -2002249084,
+                      },
+                      "hash": -2002249084,
+                    },
+                    "hash": -2002249084,
+                  },
+                  "hash": -2002249084,
+                },
+                "hash": -2002249084,
+              },
+              "hash": -2002249084,
+            },
+            "hash": -2002249084,
+          },
+          "hash": -2002249084,
+        },
+        "hash": -2002249084,
+      },
+      "hash": -2002249084,
+    },
+    "hash": -2002249084,
+  },
+  "hash": 433128623,
+}
+`;
+
+exports[`insertIntoMerkleTree > node2Timestamp2022 1`] = `
+{
+  "2": {
+    "2": {
+      "2": {
+        "0": {
+          "2": {
+            "2": {
+              "1": {
+                "2": {
+                  "2": {
+                    "2": {
+                      "0": {
+                        "0": {
+                          "1": {
+                            "1": {
+                              "2": {
+                                "0": {
+                                  "hash": -2002249084,
+                                },
+                                "hash": -2002249084,
+                              },
+                              "hash": -2002249084,
+                            },
+                            "hash": -2002249084,
+                          },
+                          "hash": -2002249084,
+                        },
+                        "hash": -2002249084,
+                      },
+                      "hash": -2002249084,
+                    },
+                    "hash": -2002249084,
+                  },
+                  "hash": -2002249084,
+                },
+                "hash": -2002249084,
+              },
+              "hash": -2002249084,
+            },
+            "hash": -2002249084,
+          },
+          "hash": -2002249084,
+        },
+        "hash": -2002249084,
+      },
+      "hash": -2002249084,
+    },
+    "hash": -2002249084,
+  },
+  "hash": -2002249084,
+}
+`;
+
+exports[`receiveTimestamp > TimestampDuplicateNodeError 1`] = `
+{
+  "_id": "Either",
+  "_tag": "Left",
+  "left": {
+    "_tag": "TimestampDuplicateNodeError",
+    "node": "0000000000000001",
+  },
+}
+`;
+
+exports[`receiveTimestamp > should fail with clock drift 1`] = `
+{
+  "_id": "Either",
+  "_tag": "Left",
+  "left": {
+    "_tag": "TimestampDriftError",
+    "next": 860934720001,
+    "now": 860934420000,
+  },
+}
+`;
+
+exports[`receiveTimestamp > should fail with clock drift 2`] = `
+{
+  "_id": "Either",
+  "_tag": "Left",
+  "left": {
+    "_tag": "TimestampDriftError",
+    "next": 860934720001,
+    "now": 860934420000,
+  },
+}
+`;
+
+exports[`receiveTimestamp > wall clock is later than both the local and remote timestamps 1`] = `
+{
+  "counter": 0,
+  "millis": 860934420001,
+  "node": "0000000000000001",
+}
+`;
+
+exports[`receiveTimestamp > wall clock is somehow behind > for the same timestamps millis, we take the bigger counter 1`] = `
+{
+  "counter": 2,
+  "millis": 860934420001,
+  "node": "0000000000000001",
+}
+`;
+
+exports[`receiveTimestamp > wall clock is somehow behind > for the same timestamps millis, we take the bigger counter 2`] = `
+{
+  "counter": 2,
+  "millis": 860934420001,
+  "node": "0000000000000001",
+}
+`;
+
+exports[`receiveTimestamp > wall clock is somehow behind > local millis is later than remote 1`] = `
+{
+  "counter": 1,
+  "millis": 860934420002,
+  "node": "0000000000000001",
+}
+`;
+
+exports[`receiveTimestamp > wall clock is somehow behind > remote millis is later than local 1`] = `
+{
+  "counter": 1,
+  "millis": 860934420002,
+  "node": "0000000000000001",
+}
+`;
+
+exports[`sendTimestamp > should fail with clock drift 1`] = `
+{
+  "_id": "Either",
+  "_tag": "Left",
+  "left": {
+    "_tag": "TimestampDriftError",
+    "next": 860934720001,
+    "now": 860934420000,
+  },
+}
+`;
+
+exports[`sendTimestamp > should fail with counter overflow 1`] = `
+{
+  "_id": "Either",
+  "_tag": "Left",
+  "left": {
+    "_tag": "TimestampCounterOverflowError",
+  },
+}
+`;
+
+exports[`sendTimestamp > should send monotonically with a monotonic clock 1`] = `
+{
+  "counter": 0,
+  "millis": 860934420001,
+  "node": "0000000000000000",
+}
+`;
+
+exports[`sendTimestamp > should send monotonically with a regressing clock 1`] = `
+{
+  "counter": 1,
+  "millis": 860934420001,
+  "node": "0000000000000000",
+}
+`;
+
+exports[`sendTimestamp > should send monotonically with a stuttering clock 1`] = `
+{
+  "counter": 1,
+  "millis": 860934420000,
+  "node": "0000000000000000",
+}
+`;
diff --git a/packages/evolu-common/test/__snapshots__/MerkleTree.test.ts.snap b/packages/evolu-common/test/__snapshots__/MerkleTree.test.ts.snap
deleted file mode 100644
index 876d2253f..000000000
--- a/packages/evolu-common/test/__snapshots__/MerkleTree.test.ts.snap
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,178 +0,0 @@
-// Vitest Snapshot v1, https://vitest.dev/guide/snapshot.html
-
-exports[`createInitialMerkleTree 1`] = `{}`;
-
-exports[`diffMerkleTrees > diff for initialMerkleTree and mt1 1`] = `
-{
-  "_id": "Option",
-  "_tag": "Some",
-  "value": 0,
-}
-`;
-
-exports[`diffMerkleTrees > diff for mt1 and initialMerkleTree 1`] = `
-{
-  "_id": "Option",
-  "_tag": "Some",
-  "value": 0,
-}
-`;
-
-exports[`diffMerkleTrees > diff for two initial Merkle Trees 1`] = `
-{
-  "_id": "Option",
-  "_tag": "None",
-}
-`;
-
-exports[`diffMerkleTrees > find the most recent time when trees were the same 1`] = `
-{
-  "_id": "Option",
-  "_tag": "Some",
-  "value": 561439380000,
-}
-`;
-
-exports[`diffMerkleTrees > find the most recent time when trees were the same 2`] = `
-{
-  "_id": "Option",
-  "_tag": "Some",
-  "value": 1612639380000,
-}
-`;
-
-exports[`diffMerkleTrees > minute window 1`] = `
-{
-  "_id": "Option",
-  "_tag": "Some",
-  "value": 0,
-}
-`;
-
-exports[`diffMerkleTrees > minute window 2`] = `
-{
-  "_id": "Option",
-  "_tag": "Some",
-  "value": 60000,
-}
-`;
-
-exports[`insertIntoMerkleTree > node1TimestampStart 1`] = `
-{
-  "0": {
-    "hash": -1416139081,
-  },
-  "hash": -1416139081,
-}
-`;
-
-exports[`insertIntoMerkleTree > node1TimestampStart then node2Timestamp2022 1`] = `
-{
-  "0": {
-    "hash": -1416139081,
-  },
-  "1": {
-    "2": {
-      "2": {
-        "0": {
-          "2": {
-            "2": {
-              "1": {
-                "2": {
-                  "2": {
-                    "2": {
-                      "0": {
-                        "0": {
-                          "1": {
-                            "1": {
-                              "2": {
-                                "0": {
-                                  "hash": 2082172820,
-                                },
-                                "hash": 2082172820,
-                              },
-                              "hash": 2082172820,
-                            },
-                            "hash": 2082172820,
-                          },
-                          "hash": 2082172820,
-                        },
-                        "hash": 2082172820,
-                      },
-                      "hash": 2082172820,
-                    },
-                    "hash": 2082172820,
-                  },
-                  "hash": 2082172820,
-                },
-                "hash": 2082172820,
-              },
-              "hash": 2082172820,
-            },
-            "hash": 2082172820,
-          },
-          "hash": 2082172820,
-        },
-        "hash": 2082172820,
-      },
-      "hash": 2082172820,
-    },
-    "hash": 2082172820,
-  },
-  "hash": -678690525,
-}
-`;
-
-exports[`insertIntoMerkleTree > node2Timestamp2022 1`] = `
-{
-  "1": {
-    "2": {
-      "2": {
-        "0": {
-          "2": {
-            "2": {
-              "1": {
-                "2": {
-                  "2": {
-                    "2": {
-                      "0": {
-                        "0": {
-                          "1": {
-                            "1": {
-                              "2": {
-                                "0": {
-                                  "hash": 2082172820,
-                                },
-                                "hash": 2082172820,
-                              },
-                              "hash": 2082172820,
-                            },
-                            "hash": 2082172820,
-                          },
-                          "hash": 2082172820,
-                        },
-                        "hash": 2082172820,
-                      },
-                      "hash": 2082172820,
-                    },
-                    "hash": 2082172820,
-                  },
-                  "hash": 2082172820,
-                },
-                "hash": 2082172820,
-              },
-              "hash": 2082172820,
-            },
-            "hash": 2082172820,
-          },
-          "hash": 2082172820,
-        },
-        "hash": 2082172820,
-      },
-      "hash": 2082172820,
-    },
-    "hash": 2082172820,
-  },
-  "hash": 2082172820,
-}
-`;
diff --git a/packages/evolu-common/test/__snapshots__/Timestamp.test.ts.snap b/packages/evolu-common/test/__snapshots__/Timestamp.test.ts.snap
deleted file mode 100644
index 069c9c8c4..000000000
--- a/packages/evolu-common/test/__snapshots__/Timestamp.test.ts.snap
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,122 +0,0 @@
-// Vitest Snapshot v1, https://vitest.dev/guide/snapshot.html
-
-exports[`receiveTimestamp > TimestampDuplicateNodeError 1`] = `
-{
-  "_id": "Either",
-  "_tag": "Left",
-  "left": {
-    "_tag": "TimestampDuplicateNodeError",
-    "node": "0000000000000001",
-  },
-}
-`;
-
-exports[`receiveTimestamp > should fail with clock drift 1`] = `
-{
-  "_id": "Either",
-  "_tag": "Left",
-  "left": {
-    "_tag": "TimestampDriftError",
-    "next": 300001,
-    "now": 0,
-  },
-}
-`;
-
-exports[`receiveTimestamp > should fail with clock drift 2`] = `
-{
-  "_id": "Either",
-  "_tag": "Left",
-  "left": {
-    "_tag": "TimestampDriftError",
-    "next": 300001,
-    "now": 0,
-  },
-}
-`;
-
-exports[`receiveTimestamp > wall clock is later than both the local and remote timestamps 1`] = `
-{
-  "counter": 0,
-  "millis": 1,
-  "node": "0000000000000001",
-}
-`;
-
-exports[`receiveTimestamp > wall clock is somehow behind > for the same timestamps millis, we take the bigger counter 1`] = `
-{
-  "counter": 2,
-  "millis": 1,
-  "node": "0000000000000001",
-}
-`;
-
-exports[`receiveTimestamp > wall clock is somehow behind > for the same timestamps millis, we take the bigger counter 2`] = `
-{
-  "counter": 2,
-  "millis": 1,
-  "node": "0000000000000001",
-}
-`;
-
-exports[`receiveTimestamp > wall clock is somehow behind > local millis is later than remote 1`] = `
-{
-  "counter": 1,
-  "millis": 2,
-  "node": "0000000000000001",
-}
-`;
-
-exports[`receiveTimestamp > wall clock is somehow behind > remote millis is later than local 1`] = `
-{
-  "counter": 1,
-  "millis": 2,
-  "node": "0000000000000001",
-}
-`;
-
-exports[`sendTimestamp > should fail with clock drift 1`] = `
-{
-  "_id": "Either",
-  "_tag": "Left",
-  "left": {
-    "_tag": "TimestampDriftError",
-    "next": 300001,
-    "now": 0,
-  },
-}
-`;
-
-exports[`sendTimestamp > should fail with counter overflow 1`] = `
-{
-  "_id": "Either",
-  "_tag": "Left",
-  "left": {
-    "_tag": "TimestampCounterOverflowError",
-  },
-}
-`;
-
-exports[`sendTimestamp > should send monotonically with a monotonic clock 1`] = `
-{
-  "counter": 0,
-  "millis": 1,
-  "node": "0000000000000000",
-}
-`;
-
-exports[`sendTimestamp > should send monotonically with a regressing clock 1`] = `
-{
-  "counter": 1,
-  "millis": 1,
-  "node": "0000000000000000",
-}
-`;
-
-exports[`sendTimestamp > should send monotonically with a stuttering clock 1`] = `
-{
-  "counter": 1,
-  "millis": 0,
-  "node": "0000000000000000",
-}
-`;
diff --git a/packages/evolu-common/test/testUtils.ts b/packages/evolu-common/test/testUtils.ts
index 59bdbd0e9..e387d1675 100644
--- a/packages/evolu-common/test/testUtils.ts
+++ b/packages/evolu-common/test/testUtils.ts
@@ -1,15 +1,16 @@
-import { Timestamp } from "../src/Timestamp.js";
+import * as Schema from "@effect/schema/Schema";
+import { Millis, Timestamp, initialMillis } from "../src/Crdt.js";
 
-export const makeNode1Timestamp = (millis = 0, counter = 0): Timestamp =>
+export const makeNode1Timestamp = (
+  millis = 0,
+  counter = 0,
+  node = "0000000000000001",
+): Timestamp =>
   ({
-    millis,
+    millis: Schema.parseSync(Millis)(initialMillis + millis),
     counter,
-    node: "0000000000000001",
+    node,
   }) as Timestamp;
 
 export const makeNode2Timestamp = (millis = 0, counter = 0): Timestamp =>
-  ({
-    millis,
-    counter,
-    node: "0000000000000002",
-  }) as Timestamp;
+  makeNode1Timestamp(millis, counter, "0000000000000002");